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Overview
Module Content
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The Nature of Intelligence The concept of intelligence remains controversial, with no clear consensus on its definition. Various perspectives have been offered: sum total of a person’s knowledge; capacity of an individual to learn; and adaptability are three. Thinking processes such as abstract reasoning, and decision-making have also been suggested as important aspects of intelligence. Contrasted with the psychometric view, which seeks to measure intelligence in an objective fashion, suggesting that intelligence is relatively fixed, the perspective of David Elkind, an advocate of developmentally appropriate practice, is based on a more flexible view of intelligence. (Haas, I think the book is at school). Spearman has proposed the notion of general intelligence, designated as g, coupled with specific abilities; Carroll expanded on that idea by creating a three-tier approach. In the first tier is g, with such abilities as visual and auditory perception; cognitive speed; and crystallized intelligence in the second tier, or stratum, and abilities such as visual spatial, phonemic and musical discrimination; test-taking rate; and vocabulary in the third. Goleman expanded on the work of Salovey and Mayer in the area of emotional intelligence, which according to Goleman has five components, three related to intrapersonal abilities and two related to interpersonal abilities. These five aspects are as follows: · Self-knowledge of one’s emotions · Management of one’s emotions · Self-motivation · Recognition of emotions in other people · Ability to handle relationships In 1938, Thurston suggested that there were several major mental abilities including memory, reasoning, spatial visualization, and word fluency. In the public school system, verbal and mathematical skills are typically emphasized. According to Gardner, however, there are eight intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal. intrapersonal, and naturalist. Information on the multiple intelligences and the MIDAS test can be accessed at http://www.angelfire.com/oh/themidas/eachmi.html, http://www.MIResearch.org or by contacting C. Branton Shearer at sbranton@kent.edu Unlike the theories above, which focus on the various abilities, or content, of intelligence, Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence represents cognitive processes involved in intelligence. The three processes, according to Sternberg are analytic, creative, and practical. Reference: Woolfolk, A, (2001). Educational Psychology, 8th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Styles of Learning Related to the concept of intelligence as multi-faceted is the concept of learning style. A number of instruments have been developed to help individuals identify the particular learning style or styles which are most comfortable and effective for them. A few of these inventories may be accessed at the websites listed below. Four dimensions (learning style preference categories based on the dimensions proposed by Jung: http://www.oswego.edu/~shindler/plsi/4dimen.htm Auditory/visual/tactile learning style inventory: http://www.clat.psu.edu/gems/Other/LSI/LSI.htm Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire (Soloman & Felder, North Carolina State University): http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSdir/ilsweb.html Based on the work of Jung in the area of personality or temperament types, the NDI Color Model for understanding human behavior was developed to help individuals and groups recognize and appreciate human diversity. The basis of the model is the idea that has persisted across cultures and through time, that there are four basic personality types in the world, which predispose individuals to prefer certain strategies and values. This system is helpful in a variety of situations, including the classroom, where learner differences need to be considered in order to maximize the likelihood of successful instruction. Information may be accessed at [New Directions website] or by contacting Betsy Justice at lkjusti1@kent.edu . Related to the notion of temperament types is the idea set forth in Glasser’s Choice Theory that all our behavior is our best attempt at any given time, to meet one or more of five genetically determined needs: survival; love and belonging; power and respect; freedom, and fun. The strength of these needs vary among different people at different times. If you have students who are worried about finances, or who are having difficulty concentrating because of a noisy heater in the classroom, their learning will likely be affected. Likewise, giving students some choice in formulating assignments will help meet their need for power/respect. Go to http://www.personal.kent.edu/~lkjusti1/Choice_Theory for additional information on this subject. There is no lack of inventories to use, but some require purchase and can be quite costly. Among the well established ones are the following.
A site with a long hypertext list of sites is: http://www.emtech.net/learning_styles.html One of the many differences in students is the extent to which they enjoy thinking and learning. “Need for cognition” is a personality variable that represents the extent to which individuals enjoy and engage in effortful cognitive activities. Those high in the need for cognition are more likely to form attitudes by paying attention to the central arguments, while those low in the need for cognition are more likely to use peripheral cues (e.g., attractiveness or credibility of the speaker) to form attitudes or opinions. Other approaches look at modalities, channels or means of learning. One such assessment tool (still in the development and testing phase) is based on the work of Richardson (1977) in contrasting verbal and visual styles of learning. This dichotomy with true/false responses has been expanded by Feezel (2002) to juxtapose visual, auditory and language (verbal) modes and assess a person’s relative preferences on a continuum. This VAL Scale labeled “Your Cognitive Style” is provided in this Module (in Student Assessment section) or contact Jerry Feezel at jfeezel@kent.edu for a copy and further information. Reference: Adapted/extended by J. D. Feezel from A. Richardson (1977), Verbalizer-Visualizer, J. of Mental Imagery, 1, 109-126.
Other DiversitiesStudents bring with them to the learning environment many different perspectives that are based on their individual experiences with the social world more generally. These experiences are often shaped by characteristics, such as age, gender, race, and social class. This section of the learning styles module covers differences in student learning based on age, gender, race, and social class, the instructor’s role in acknowledging such diversities in the process of teaching, and the impact of various diversities on student perceptions of the instructor.
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